Melting Indian crucible steel: experimental reconstruction of traditional production technologies

Alipour, R. and Rehren, T. (2014). Persian Pūlād production: Chāhak tradition. Journal of Islamic Archaeology, 1(2), 231–261

Anatharamu, T.R., Craddock, P.T., Nagesh Rao, K., Murthy, S.R.N., and Wayman, M.L. (1999). Crucible steel of Ghattihosahalli, Chitradurga District, Karnataka, southern India. Historical Metallurgy, 33(1), 13–25

Berthelot, M. (1887). Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs. Paris: Georges Steinheil

Buchanan, F. (1807). A journey from Madras through the countries of Mysore, Canara, and Malabar II. London: Cadell & Davies

Coomaraswamy, A.K. (1956). Mediaeval Sinhalese art (2nd ed., rev.). New York: Pantheon Books

Craddock, P.T. (1998). New light on the production of crucible steel in Asia. Bulletin of the Metals Museum, 29, 41–66

Craddock, P.T. (2003). Cast iron, fined iron, crucible steel: Liquid iron in the ancient world. In P.T. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (pp. 231–257). London: British Museum Press

Feuerbach, A. (2000). Damascus steel and crucible steel in Central Asia. American Society of Arms Collectors Bulletin, 82, 33–42

Feuerbach, A. (2002). Crucible steel in Central Asia: Production, use, and origins (unpubl. Ph.D. diss.). University of London

Feuerbach, A. (2007). Production and trade of crucible steel in Central Asia. Indian Journal of History of Science, 42(3), 319–336

Hoyland, R.G. and Gilmour, B.J.J. (2006). Medieval Islamic swords and swordmaking: Kindi’s treatise “On swords and their kinds.” Warminster: Gibb Memorial Trust

Jones, L.A. (1997). The serpent in the sword: Pattern-welding in early medieval swords. Park Lane Arms Fair Catalogue, 4, 7–11

Juleff, G. (1990). Crucible steel in Sri Lanka and India: New evidence. Ancient Ceylon, 12, 33–59

Juleff, G. (1998). Early iron and steel in Sri Lanka: A study of the Samanalawewa area (=Materialien zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Archäologie 54). Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern

Lang, J. (2009). A consideration of the methods of constructing iron sword blades in the pre-medieval period. In Archaeometallurgy in Europe 2007: 2nd International Conference, Aquileia, Italy, 17–21 June 2007. Selected papers (pp. 232–240). Milan: Associazione italiana di metallurgia

Lang, J., Craddock, P.T., and Simpson, S.J. (1998). New evidence for early crucible steel. The Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society, 32(1), 7–14

Le Coze, J. (2003). About the signification of wootz and other names given to steel. Indian Journal of History of Science, 38(2), 117–127

Maryon, H. (1960). Pattern-welding and Damascening of sword-blades—Part I. Pattern-welding. Studies in Conservation, 5(1), 25–37

Moshtagh Khorasani, M. and Hynninen, N. (2013). Reproducing crucible steel: A practical guide and a comparative analysis to persian manuscripts. Gladius, 33, 157–192

Pelsmaeker, S.B.M. (2010). Weapons of princes, weapons of war? An experimental analysis from pattern-welded swords from northwestern Europe, 400–1100 AD (unpubl. MA thesis). University of Groningen

Piaskowski, J. (1974). O stali damasceńskiej (Of Damascus steel). Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich (in Polish)

Rajan, K. (1991). Iron and gemstone industries as revealed from Kodumanal excavations. Puratattua, 20, 111–112

Rao, K.N.P., Mukherjee, J.K., and Lahiri, A.K. (1970). Some observations on the structure of ancient steel from South India and its mode of production. Bulletin of Historical Metallurgy, 4(1), 12–17

Rehren, T. (2002). As similar as black and white: Steelmaking crucibles from South and Central Asia. Archaeology International, 6, 37–39

Rehren, T. (2003). Crucibles as reaction vessels in ancient metallurgy. In P.T. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and metal production through the ages (pp. 207–215). London: British Museum Press

Sachse, M. (1993). Damaszener Stahl: Mythos, Geschichte, Technik, Anwendung (2nd ed.). Düsseldorf: Stahleisen

Schwarz, C.R. von. (1991). Über die Eisen- und Stahlindustrie Ostindiens. Stahl und Eisen, 21, 209–211, 277–283, 337–341

Sherby, O.D. and Wadsworth, J. (1985). Damascus steels. Scientific American, 252(2), 112–120

Solangaarachchi, R. (2011). Ancient iron smelting technology and the settlement pattern in the Kiri Oya Basin in the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka (Ph.D. diss.). University of Florida

Srinivasan, S. (1994). Wootz crucible steel: A newly discovered production site in South India. Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, 5, 49–61

Srinivasan, S. (1996). Crucible steel in South India—Preliminary investigations on crucibles from some newly identified sites. MRS Online Proceedings Library Archive , Volume 462: Symposium DD – Materials Issues in Art and Archaeology V, 111–125

Thiele, A., Hošek, J., Hazamza, M., and Török, B. (2015). Revealing the surface pattern of medieval pattern welded iron objects—Etching tests conducted on reconstructed composites. Archeologia Technica, 24, 18–24

Thiele, A., Hošek, J., Kucypera, P., and Dévényi, L. (2015). The role of pattern-welding in historical swords—Mechanical testing of materials used in their manufacture. Archaeometry, 57(4), 720–739

Tylecote, R.F. and Gilmour, B.J. (1986). The metallography of early ferrous edge tools and edged weapons (=BAR British Series 155). Oxford: B.A.R.

Verhoeven, J.D. (1987). Damascus steel, part I: Indian wootz steel. Metallography, 20(2), 145–151

Verhoeven, J.D. and Pendray, A.H. (2001). Origin of the Damask pattern in Damascus steel blades. Materials Characterization, 47(5), 423–424

Wasiak, K. (2003). Kształtowanie struktury gradientowej w stalach przy wykorzystaniu procesów nawęglania i obróbki hartowania z przemianą izotermiczną (Formation of gradient structure in steels using carburization and austempering heat treatment) (Unpubl. MA thesis). Warsaw University of Technology (in Polish)

Wayman, M. and Juleff, G. (1999). Crucible steel making in Sri Lanka. Historical Metallurgy, 33, 26–42

Woźniak, M. (2015). Indian steel: A forgotten commodity of the great trade routes. PAM, 24/1, 709–726